از معنی بیگانه تا استعاره بعید: مطالعه تطبیقی سبک هندی ایرانی و شعر متافیزیکی انگلیسی

Abstract

Introduction

Comparative literature, in its most expansive definition, operates as a bridge across cultures and civilizations, enabling scholars to uncover the deep and sometimes unexpected links between literary traditions that have developed independently of each other. It offers a framework for understanding how aesthetic concepts, thematic concerns, and poetic strategies can emerge under different cultural and linguistic systems yet display striking similarities. The present study focuses on a comparative analysis of the Persian Indian Style (Sabk-e Hindi) poetry of the Safavid era and the English Metaphysical Poets of the seventeenth century. These two traditions, separated by vast geographical distances, distinct languages, and a lack of any direct historical contact, nonetheless evolved comparable techniques and aesthetic priorities.
The Indian Style, represented by poets such as Ṣāʾib Tabrīzī, Bīdil Dehlavī, Kalīm Kāshānī, and Ṭālib Āmulī, marked a departure from the courtly, idealized verse of earlier Persian poetry. It embraced intricate structural designs, inventive metaphorical associations, integration of colloquial and everyday speech, and engagement with philosophical speculation. In an almost parallel fashion, the English Metaphysical Poets, including John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marvell, Henry Vaughan, and Richard Crashaw, diverged from the smooth musical lyricism of Elizabethan verse, instead favoring elaborate conceits, bold juxtapositions of disparate ideas, and an intense focus on spiritual exploration. The aim of this research is not simply to catalogue similarities but to reveal how poetic imagination responds in structurally parallel ways to comparable cultural and intellectual conditions. Through this, the study seeks to illuminate the universality of creative impulses across time and space.

Methodology

The analysis is anchored in the interdisciplinary field of comparative literature, drawing from both its traditional methodologies and its modern, postcolonial reinterpretations. The French School’s historical approach, concerned largely with tracing documented influences between literatures, is adapted here in combination with the American School’s wider aesthetic focus and interdisciplinary reach. Such an approach permits the examination of connections that arise independently, without direct lines of influence. Contemporary theorists such as Susan Bassnett, Gayatri Spivak, and Julia Kristeva have expanded comparative literature to include intertextuality, postcolonial critique, and the study of “parallel convergence,” wherein distinct literary traditions, responding to similar conditions, generate analogous aesthetic solutions. This case study is precisely such a phenomenon, where parallelism exists without any historical transmission.
The Indian Style emerged within Safavid Iran in a period marked by the decline of royal patronage for poetry, the rise of urban life in cities such as Isfahan, and a closer link between poets and everyday culture. This shift enabled Persian poetry to incorporate colloquial phrasing, vivid representation of daily life, and reflections on contemporary philosophical and scientific discourse. Advances in theology, philosophy—including the flourishing of the mashshaʾī and ṣadrāʾī schools—astronomy, and the arts enriched the imagery and intellectual tone of the poetry. Safavid poets rejected the traditional idea of poetry as solely the product of divine inspiration, instead asserting the poet’s mind and creative skill as the origin of verse.
In early seventeenth-century England, metaphysical poetry arose amidst profound religious instability, including tense Protestant–Catholic relations, the rise of Puritanism, and the political and social upheavals of the English Civil War. The scientific revolution, sparked by the work of Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, reshaped worldviews, prompting poets to engage in intellectual experimentation and to integrate scientific language and imagery into verse. Philosophical skepticism, especially that of Montaigne, and Bacon’s empirical methodology found their way into poetic conceits, enabling a fusion of the empirical and the metaphysical in the poetic imagination.

Findings

The study demonstrates a set of remarkable convergences between the Persian Indian Style and English Metaphysical poetry—convergences that span several key aesthetic domains and reflect common reactions to the crisis of preceding poetic traditions.
One of the most prominent points of convergence lies in innovative thematic construction. Persian poets perfected the device known as maʿnī-ye bīgāneh (“alien meaning”), which sought to create novel associations beyond familiar tropes and demanded from the reader an engagement with unfamiliar, intricate, and intellectually stimulating ideas. These “alien meanings” moved far from the well-worn images of traditional lyric poetry, such as the beauty of the beloved, and replaced them with sharply original juxtapositions of concepts drawn from science, philosophy, and the everyday. Similarly, metaphysical poets developed the far-fetched conceit, an extended metaphor linking distant conceptual worlds through sustained logical elaboration. Donne’s compass metaphor in A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, or Marvell’s geometric paradox in The Definition of Love, work in the same spirit, compelling the reader to follow a chain of unexpected but rigorously constructed associations.
Another point of convergence appears in the profound use of paradox as an epistemic mechanism. In Persian poetry of this style, paradoxes unsettle binary oppositions—between reason and passion, stability and change, life and death—using contradiction not as mere ornament but as a way to articulate the coexistence of opposing truths in human experience. Ṣāʾib’s and Bīdil’s paradoxes bear structural resemblance to Donne’s theological inversions, such as “Death, be not proud,” where mortality is reimagined as powerless in the face of eternity, or Herbert’s paradoxical “submission for freedom” in the realm of faith. These contradictions reveal an intellectual commitment to exploring complexity rather than reducing it.
Beyond paradox, both traditions employ hyperbole not simply as decorative exaggeration but as a cognitive and philosophical device. Persian poets often magnified ordinary scenes into images of impossibility—depicting the beloved’s heel as translucent enough to reveal the design of a carpet beneath—as a means to force new sensory and intellectual perceptions. In English metaphysical poetry, hyperbole extended concepts to their theological and cosmic limits: Donne addressing the sun as an “old fool” who must learn obedience to lovers’ time, or Vaughan claiming direct vision of eternity. In both cases, hyperbole becomes a way to push reality’s boundaries, inviting the reader into philosophical speculation.
A further point of convergence emerges in the clear presence of Baroque sensibilities in both traditions. The Baroque aesthetic, characterized by dramatic contrasts, emotional extremity, intricate structuring, and a blending of mysticism with sensory intensity, surfaces in Persian Indian Style through dynamic shifts in perspective, theatrical imagery, and a constant interplay between order and disruption. English metaphysical poetry reflects Catholic and Protestant inflections of Baroque drama, seen in violent spiritual reformations—Donne’s plea for God to “batter my heart”—and in tactile metaphors drawn from craft, alchemy, and navigation. In both contexts, the Baroque impulse signaled a way of processing an unstable and evolving world through art that embraced multiplicity and contradiction.

Conclusion

Taken together, these findings strongly support the theory of parallel convergence within comparative literature. They demonstrate that stylistic and thematic innovations can arise independently in different traditions when poets face analogous historical, cultural, and intellectual pressures. This has significant implications for how we conceptualize literary history.
Firstly, it calls into question Eurocentric models of literary modernity by highlighting Safavid Indian Style poetry as an example of a non-Western modernity, developing parallel to European poetic innovations of the early modern period. This challenges the notion that high literary modernism was an exclusively European creation and instead situates it within a global network of cultural responses to change.
Secondly, the study suggests that certain aesthetic principles—such as defamiliarization, conceptual complexity, and inventive metaphor—are not bound by linguistic or cultural limits. These devices operate as universal mechanisms in the craft of poetry and can be adapted to suit vastly different historical and cultural environments while serving similar cognitive and emotional purposes.
Thirdly, this comparative framework moves beyond national or influence-based narratives. Instead of tracing linear paths of influence, it proposes a networked model of literary evolution that accounts for independent but structurally analogous developments. In doing so, it reimagines comparative literature as a study of global poetics, concerned with how human creativity responds to shared existential questions, rather than only with cultural borrowing.
Finally, by examining the shared aesthetics of Persian and English poetry across the Baroque and metaphysical traditions, this research emphasizes the role of comparative poetics in fostering cross-cultural dialogue. Recognizing common strategies of innovation across traditions not only enriches our understanding of literary creativity but also encourages us to view poetry as a collective human enterprise—diverse in its expressions yet united in its imaginative reach.