A Comparative Glance at the Demeanor and Deeds of Two Figures: Ashoka and Zahhak

Document Type : Research Paper

Author

Institute of Civilization and World Studies, Dez.c., Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran

10.22103/jcl.2025.25318.3843

Abstract

Introduction

Zahhak (Aži Dahāka / Azi Dahāk) is one of the most complex characters in Iranian mythology and Persian epic literature. He has consistently symbolized evil deeds, heresy, and tyranny, and may be seen as a figure onto whom many of the negative traits of monarchs in Iranian history or associated with Iranian cultural memory have been projected. This has made his story and character receptive to multiple layers of mythological and historical interpretation, and his traits have often aligned with various mytho-historical figures within Iranian tradition. Consequently, scholars have compared Zahhak with a number of other personalities and found meaningful parallels.
 

Methodology

This article, employing a comparative-explanatory approach and utilizing analysis of library documents, compares the character of Zahhak in Iran's national epic with Ashoka, the powerful historical king of India.
 

Discussion

Zahhak aligns with many mythological and historical figures connected to Iranian culture. This has led researchers to compare Zahhak with figures such as the Avestan Aži Dahāka, the Vedic Viśvarūpa, the Median Deioces and Astyages, the Mesopotamian Tiamat, Kingu, Nergal, and Nin-gish-zida, the Greek Gorgon, the Armenian Artavazd, Loki, and others, finding many shared characteristics among them. In this research, the author also explored the similarities between Zahhak and Ashoka, one of the kings of the Maurya dynasty in India, highlighting several common features between them. As we observed:

It seems the Mauryan kings were originally Scythians who later settled in India and established their rule there. Zahhak, too, was most likely of Scythian origin and from India; according to Tarikh-i Bal'ami, he rose from the East, and Mehrab Kaboli, who ruled in India and Kabul, was one of his descendants. Kakui or Kerkui, also a descendant of Zahhak, was the name of a place in the East.
Ashoka attacked his father's capital and usurped his rule after his father fell ill. Similarly, Zahhak killed his father and ended his reign.
Ashoka was known for his bloodthirstiness and tyranny, just as Zahhak was called tyrannical, bloodthirsty, and wicked, and "would sever the heads of a thousand innocents."
Despite being ruthless and tyrannical, Ashoka was called "kind-eyed towards all" and enjoyed popularity among the people because he believed in a communal economy and did not collect taxes from farmers. This characteristic is also seen in Zahhak. According to the Shahnameh, he pardoned profits and losses (taxes) for a segment of the people (the Arabs). According to Moses of Chorene and Biruni, he declared everything public, and seemingly gained popularity through this.
Ashoka had a highly influential advisor named Kumara who managed all affairs in the king's absence. Zahhak also had a successor like Kandru, who administered the country when Zahhak was not present in Iran.
Just as Ashoka promoted the Buddhist religion, Zahhak became a promoter of idolatry. The Persian word "bot" (idol) is derived from the word "Buddha." Since Buddhists depicted Buddha in statues and revered him as a god, Iranians perceived Buddhism as idolatry; therefore, Zahhak's idolatry can be considered a focus on Buddha and Buddhism.
After much oppression, Ashoka eventually moderated and, to some extent, reformed his tyranny by converting to Buddhism. Zahhak does not possess such a characteristic; however, his nephew or descendant, Kush-e Pil-Dandan, who also ruled in the eastern lands, changed his ways after meeting a wise elder. Like Ashoka, who provided water for the people, built hospitals, abandoned carnal desires, constructed pools for treating epileptics, avoided illicit sexual relations with women and children, and refrained from seizing people's property – in short, abandoned "the bad path and wolfish nature.

 

Conclusion

Continuing this line of comparison, the author explores the similarities between Zahhak and one of the kings of the Maurya dynasty in India — Ashoka — and concludes that both figures may trace their origins to the Scythians who settled in India. Both have fathers with ascetic tendencies — Merdas and Chandragupta —whose rule they seize and bring to an end. Both are known for bloodthirstiness and fearlessness, and yet, despite their tyranny, they enjoy popularity among certain segments of the population. During their absences from their respective countries, each entrusts governance to loyal deputies: Kondrow and Kumar. Both also promote Indian religious traditions — idolatry in Zahhak’s case and Buddhism in Ashoka’s. Ashoka, after a period of intense cruelty, ultimately chooses a religious path and turns to helping the people. Zahhak, by contrast, shows no such transformation; however, his nephew or grandson — Kush-e Pīl-Dandān ("Kush the Elephant-Tusked") — exhibits similar traits, which brings his character closer to that of Ashoka.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

 
References [In Persian]
Aghazadeh, Farzin. (2010). Zahhak-e Marvash (A Study on the Concept of Azhi and Azhi Dahaka in Iranian and Other Myths and Texts). Tehran: Qoqnoos. ]In Persian[
Alaei, Mina. (2018). "Zahhak and Minotaur: A Study of the Origin of Two Similar Mythological Stories from Shahnameh and Plutarch's Lives." In Naqd-e Adabi ba Roykard-e Ostureh-shenakhti (Collected Articles of the Fifth National Conference on Literary Criticism). Edited by Abolghasem Esmaeilpour, pp. 265-283. Tehran: Khamoosh. ]In Persian[
Alishan, Leonardo. (2024). "On the Title 'Tajbakhsh'." In Qatreh va Darya-ye Zharf (Several Essays in the Realm of Shahnameh, Epic, and Myth). Translated by Mahmoud Hasanabadi, pp. 507-535. Tehran: Sokhan. ]In Persian[
Ardestani Rostami, Hamidreza. (2018). Zahhak-e Shahnameh (Seven Essays on the Story and Character of Zahhak). Tehran: Negah-e Moaser. ]In Persian[
Asadi Tusi, Abunasr Ali ibn Ahmad. (2010). Garshaspnameh. Edited and corrected by Habib Yaghmai. Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab. ]In Persian[
Asghari, Fatemeh. (2021). The Spread of Buddhism in Ancient Eastern Iran. Tehran: Shafiee. ]In Persian[
Avesta (The Oldest Hymns and Texts of Iranians). (2000). Edited and researched by Jalil Doostkhah. Tehran: Morvarid.  ]In Persian[
Ayvazyan-Terzyan, M & A. M. Bakhshmandi. (2012). Mythological and Belief Commonalities in Iranian and Armenian Sources. Tehran: Research Institute of Humanities and Cultural Studies. ]In Persian[
Balami, AboAli (2003). Tarikh-e Balami. Edited MohammadTaghi Bahar. Tehran: Zavvar. ]In Persian[
Bahar, Mehrdad (2005 a). From Myth to History. Edited by Abuʾl-Qasim Esma il-Pur. Tehran: Cheshmeh. ]In Persian[
Bahar, Mehrdad (2005 b). Asian Religions. Edited by Abolqasem Esmaeilpour. Tehran: Cheshmeh. ]In Persian[
Bahar, Mehrdad (2006). An Essay on Iranian Culture. New edition edited by Abuʾl-Qasim Esmaʿil-Pur. Tehran: Astore. ]In Persian[
Bahar, Mehrdad (2010). A Study of Iranian Mythology. (Volume 1 and Volume 2). Edited by Katayun Mazdapur. Tehran: Agahe. ]In Persian]
Bargnisi, Kazem. (2010). Shahnameh az Dibacheh ta Padeshahi-ye Kay-Qobad. Vol. 1 (Correction and Explanation of Words and Meanings of Verses). Tehran: Fekr-e Rooz. ]In Persian[
Baylaqani, Mojir al-Din. (1979). Divan. Corrected and annotated by Mohammad Abadi. Tabriz: Moasseseh-ye Tarikh va Farhang-e Iran. ]In Persian[
Behfar, Mehri. (2012). Shahnameh-ye Ferdowsi. Vol. 1 (Critical Correction and Explanation of Each Verse). Tehran: Nashr-e No. ]In Persian[
Biruni, Abu Rayḥan (2010). The Remaining Signs of the Past Centuries. Translated by Akbar Danasarst. Tehran: Amirkabir. ]In Persian[
Bivar, Adrian David. (2024). "The Allegory of Astyages." In Qatreh va Darya-ye Zharf (Several Essays in the Realm of Shahnameh, Epic, and Myth). Translated by Mahmoud Hasanabadi, pp. 551-568. Tehran: Sokhan. ]In Persian[
Borhan Tabrizi, Mohammad Hossein ibn Khalaf (1978). Borhan-e Qāte' (The Decisive Proof). Edited by Mohammad Moein.Tehran: Amirkabir. [In Persian[
Davidson, Olga. (1999). Poet and Hero in Shahnameh. Translated by Farhad Ataei. Tehran: Nashr-e Tarikh-e Iran. ]In Persian[
Denkard, Book Seven. (2010). Text correction, transliteration, Persian writing, glossary, and notes by Mohammad Taghi Rashed Mohassel. Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies. ]In Persian[
Dēnkard. (1911). ed D. N. Madan, Bombay.
Enjavi Shirazi, Sayyed Abolqasem (1984). Ferdowsi-Nameh. Tehran: Elmi. ]In Persian[
Estakhri, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim. (1961). Masalek va Mamalek (Persian Translation from the 5th and 6th Centuries). Edited by Iraj Afshar. Tehran: Bongah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab. ]In Persian[
Fardawsi, Abul-Qasem. (2007). Shah-name. Correction of  Jalal Khaleqi Moṭlaq & Mahmud ʿOmidsalar /6 va Abolfażl Khaṭibi /7. Tehran: Great Islamic Encyclopedia. ]In Persian[
Farnbagh Dadagi (2001). Bundahishn. commentary by Mehrdad Bahar, Tehran: Toos. ]In Persian[
Foltez, Richard C. (2010). Religions of Silk Road. Translated by Askari Pashayi. Tehran: Fraravan. ]In Persian[
Frye, Richard Nelson (2007). Ancient History of Iran. Translated by Masʿud Rajabnia. Tehran: ʿElmi va Farhangi. ]In Persian[
Gazerani, Saghi (2019). Zahhak (History from the Heart of Myth). Translated by Sima Soltani. Tehran: Markaz. ]In Persian[
Gazerani, Saghi (2020). Kush-e Pil-Dandan (The Creation of an Anti-Hero). Translated by Sima Soltani. Tehran: Markaz. ]In Persian[
Gholizade, Khosro. (2010). “Zahāk or serpent-wolflike in Iranian Mythology”. Naqd-e Dastan-e Moaser-e Farsi (Contemporary Persian Fiction Criticism). Vol 1. pp. 78-102.  ]In Persian[
Hamza Isfahani, Ibn Hasan (1967). Tarikh-e Payambaran va Shahān (History of Prophets and Kings). Translated by Ja'far Sho'ar. Tehran: Iranian Culture Foundation. ]In Persian[
Hassandoust, Mohammad. (2016). Etymological Dictionary of the Persian Language. Tehran: Academy of Persian Language and Literature. ]In Persian[
Hekmat, Ali Asghar. (1958). Sar-zamin-e Hend (Historical, Social, Political, and Literary Survey of India from Ancient Times to the Present Era). Tehran: University of Tehran. ]In Persian[
Herodotus (2010). The Histories. Translation by Morteza Thaqebfar. Tehran: Asatir. [In Persian[
Ibn Athir, Izz al-Din (1970). News of Iran. Translated by Mohammad Ibrahim Bastani Parizi. Tehran: University of Tehran. ]In Persian[
Ibn Balkhi (2006). Farsname. Edited and annotated by Guy Le Strange and Reynold A Nicholson. Tehran: Asatir. ]In Persian[
Iranian Bundahišn. (1978). ed K.M.Jamasp Asa, Y.Mahyar Nawabi, M.Tavousi. Shiraz: Pahlavi University.
Iranshan ibn Abi'l-Khayr (1998). Kosh-Nameh. Edited by Jalal Matini. Tehran: Elmi. ]In Persian[
Khaleghi-Motlagh, Jalal (2011). "The Insight of the Shahnameh". Ferdowsi and Shahnameh Composition (Selected Articles from the Encyclopedia of Persian Language and Literature). Tehran: Academy of Persian Language and Literature. pp. 207-239. ]In Persian[
Khaqani, Afzal al-Din Ibrahim ibn Ali. (1978). Divan. Corrected, annotated, and commented by Ali Abdolrasooli. Tehran: Ketabkhaneh-ye Khayyam. ]In Persian[
Kazzazi, Mir Jalal-aldin. (2000). Nameh-ye Bastan (Edition and Commentary on Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, Vol. 1). Tehran: Samt. ]In Persian[
Kazzazi, Mirjalal al-Din. (2001). Mazha-ye Raz (Essays on Shahnameh). Tehran: Markaz. ]In Persian[
Ketab-e Garshasp (Tumār-e Garshaspnameh-ye Morshedqoli based on Tumār-e Shah-Tahmasbi and Analytical Textual Criticism). (2022). Edited by Farzad Qaemi and Jalal al-Din Gorgij. Tehran: Sokhan. ]In Persian[
Khayyam Nishapuri, Omar (2006). Nowruz-nameh (On the Origin, History, and Customs of the Nowruz Celebration). Edited and annotated by Mojtaba Minovi. Tehran: Asatir. ]In Persian[
Koyaji, Jahangir K. C. (2009). Foundations of Iranian Myth and Epic (Sixteen Essays on Comparative Mythology and Epic Studies). Reported and edited by Jalil Doostkhah. Tehran: Agah. ]In Persian[
Liewellyn-Basham, Arthur. (2015). Ancient India. Translated by Fereydoun Badree and Mahmoud Mosaheb. Tehran: Elmi va Farhangi. ]In Persian[
Manichaean psalm. (2009). Coptic to English translation: Charles Robert Cecil Albury and Hugo Ibsher. English to Persian translation: Abulqasem Ismailpour. Tehran: Ostoureh. ]In Persian[
Mansouri, Yadollah (2021). Etymological Dictionary of Middle Persian Names (Based on Pahlavi Texts). Tehran: Avaye Khavar (Voice of the East). ]In Persian[
Maqdesi, Abu-nasr (2007). Afaiinesh va Tarikh (Creation and history). Edited by Mohammadreza Shafiyi Kadkani. Tehran: Agah. ]In Persian[
Marzban Farsi, Rafi al-Din. (2020). Faramarznameh-ye Kuchak. Foreword, critical text, and explanation of difficult verses by Abolfazl Khatibi and Reza Ghafouri. Tehran: Bonyad-e Moqufat-e Dr. Mahmoud Afshar – Sokhan. ]In Persian[
Mashkoor, Mohammad Javad. (1999). Nameh-ye Bastan (Collected Articles of Dr. Mohammad Javad Mashkoor). Edited by Sa'id Mir-Mohammad Sadeq. Tehran: Pazhooheshgah-e Olum-e Ensani va Motale'at-e Farhangi. ]In Persian[
Masoudi, Ali bin Hossein. (2008). Gold Promoters and Mineral Resources. 2 vols. Translated by Abul Qasem Payandeh. Tehran: Scientific and Cultural.  ]In Persian[
Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani, Usman ibn Mohammad. (2010). Tabaqat-i Naseri. Corrected, collated, and annotated by Abdolhayy Habibi. Tehran: Asatir. ]In Persian[
Mirza Agha Khan Kermani, Abdol Hossein. (1324 AH). The Mirror of Alexandria (History of Ancient Iran). Edited by Zain al-Abedin, the translator of al-Mulk. Tehran.  ]In Persian[
Mirza Agha Khan Kermani, Abdol Hossein & Ahmad bin Mulla Hafez Kermani. (2018). Salarname. With corrections, introduction and annotations by Hamid Reza Kharazmi & Vahid Ghanbari Naniz. Tehran: Tarikh-e Iran. ]In Persian[
Modarresi, Fatemeh and Mohammad Bamdadi. (2010). "An Intertextual Look at One of the West Asian Myths and Its Adaptation to the Myth of Zahhak in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh." Adabiyat-e Tatbiqi. Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, New Period, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 357-377. ]In Persian[
Mojmal al-Tawarikh wa al-Qesas (Compendium of Histories and Stories). (2004). Edited by Mohammad-Taqi Bahar. Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab. ]In Persian[
Mostofi, Hamadollah. (2008). Tarikh-e-Gozideh (Selected date). Edited by AbdolHosain Navayi. Tehran: AmirKabir. ]In Persian[
Movses Khorenatsi. (2001). History of the Armenians. Translated by Edik Baghdasarian (A. Germanik). Tehran. ]In Persian[
Mozaffari, Ali Reza and Ali Asghar Zarei. (2013). “Zahhak and the Mesopotamians”. Mystical and Mythological Literature. Year 9. Issue 33. pp. 87-115. ]In Persian[
Nahvi, Akbar. (1401). The Role of Imagination (Literary and Historical Essays Collection). Tehran: Dr. Mahmoud Afshar-Sokhan Publications. ]In Persian[
Pashayi, Askari. (2016). Hinayana. Tehran: Negah-e Moaser. ]In Persian[
Qaemi, Farzad. (2015). "A Comparative Analysis of the Myth of Zahhak-e Mardoush." Pazhoheshnameh-ye Adab-e Hamasi. Vol. 11, No. 19, pp. 27-65. ]In Persian[
Rezayi Dasht Arzhaneh, Mahmoud. (2024). “Considerations on the Nature of the Guilt of Ferēdūn.” Epic Knowledge and Wisdom. 1 (1), 71-98. doi: https://doi.org/10.22067/jmels.2024.83656.1007 ]In Persian[
Safa, Zabihullah. (2005). Hamaseh Sarayi dar Iran (From the Oldest Period to the Fourth Century AH). Tehran: Amirkabir. ]In Persian[
Shahnameh-ye Haft Lashkar. (2021). Introduction, correction, and explanations by Mohammad Ja'fari (Qanavarti) and Zahra Mohammadhassani Saghiree. Tehran: Khamoosh. ]In Persian[
Sana'i, Abulmajd. (1983). Divan. With an introduction, annotations, and index by the efforts and care of Modarres Razavi. Tehran: Ketab-khane-ye Sana'i. ]In Persian[
Suzuki, Beatrice Lane. (2012). Mahayana Buddhism. Translated by Askari Pashayi. Tehran: Negah-e Moaser. ]In Persian[
Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (2011). The History of al-Tabari (Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk). Translated by Abolqasem Payandeh. Tehran: Asatir.  ]In Persian[
Tarikh-e Sistan (History of Sistan) (2008). Edited by Mohammad-Taqi Bahar. Tehran: Moin ]In Persian[
Journal of Comparative Literature
Volume 17, Issue 32
Current Issue
September 2025
Pages 1-20

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics